Afghanistan Part 1

The US State Department’s website said that 80% of Afghanistan’s population is Sunni Muslim, 19% Shi'a (Shiite) Muslim and 1% other. The Sunni follow the Hanafi (the oldest, largest and the strictest yet more liberal of the 4 schools of jurisprudence - strict adherence to the Quran while allowing women to serve as judges of Islamic law) theory and philosophy of law while, somewhat less so in urban areas, the remainder of the population is largely based on ethnic kinship groups that follow Islamic religious traditional customs, practices and codes that have an important role in personal conduct and dispute settlement.

British concern over Russian advances in Central Asia and growing influence in Persia precipitated two Anglo-Afghan wars (1839 and 1878). During the reign of Amir Abdur Rahman (1880-1901), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan through the demarcation of the Durand Line. The British retained effective control over Kabul's foreign affairs. Habibullah Rahman (1901–1919) ruled until his assassination and his brother Amanullah regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the third Anglo-Afghan war with India in the same year. The British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1919; in commemoration Afghans celebrate August 19 as their Independence Day. King Amanullah (1919-29) moved to end his country's traditional isolation. He established diplomatic relations with most major countries and introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. Some of these, such as the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate in January 1929 after Kabul fell to forces led by Bacha-i-Saqao, a Tajik brigand. Prince Nadir Khan, a cousin of Amanullah's, in turn defeated Bacha-i-Saqao in October of the same year and, with considerable Pashtun tribal support, was declared King and 4 years later he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a Kabul student. Mohammad Zahir Shah, Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne. In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a two-chamber legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. Although Zahir's "experiment in democracy" produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right. These included the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the Khalq (Masses) faction headed by Nur Muhammad Taraki and Hafizullah Amin and supported by elements within the military, and the Parcham (Banner) faction led by Babrak Karmal. The split reflected ethnic, class, and ideological divisions within Afghan society. King Zahir Shah reigned from 1933 to 1973 (when his cousin Sardar Mohammad Daoud overthrew him).

Sardar Mohammad Daoud who had served as Prime Minister from 1953-1963 solicited military and economic aid from both the US and Russia, introduced controversial social policies of a reformist nature and his alleged support for a Pashtun state in the Pakistan-Afghan border area heightened tensions with Pakistan and eventually resulted in Daoud's dismissal in March 1963. Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor economic conditions, Daoud seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973. Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success and the new constitution of February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability. Seeking to exploit mounting popular disaffection the PDPA reunified with Moscow's support. On April 27, 1978 the PDPA initiated a bloody coup which resulted in the overthrow and murder of Daoud (1973-78) and most of his family. Nur Muhammad Taraki (1978–79), Secretary General of the PDPA, became President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. By the summer of 1978, a revolt began in the Nuristan region of eastern Afghanistan and quickly spread into a countrywide insurgency. In December 1978 Moscow signed a new bilateral treaty of friendship and cooperation with Afghanistan and the Soviet military increased significantly. During its first 18 months of rule, the PDPA brutally imposed a Marxist-style reform program and thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia were imprisoned, tortured, or murdered and conflicts within the PDPA resulted in exiles, purges, imprisonments and executions. In September 1979, Hafizullah Amin, who had earlier been Prime Minister and Minister of Defense, seized power from Taraki. Amin refused to take Soviet advice on how to stabilize and consolidate his government. With the insurgency growing, on December 24, 1979 Soviet airborne forces landed in Kabul; they killed Amin and installed Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of the Parcham faction, as Prime Minister. The Karmal regime although backed by Soviet troops was unable to establish authority outside Kabul. As much as 80% of the countryside, including parts of Herat and Kandahar, eluded effective government control. An overwhelming majority of Afghans opposed the communist regime, either actively or passively. Afghan fighters (mujahideen) made it almost impossible for the regime to maintain a system of local government outside major urban centers.